Table 4 Factors associated with excessive polypharmacy (≥10 substances); results from the multivariable generalized linear mixed model

Sex (female vs male)

1.18 (1.03–1.35)

0.0189

1.03 (0.89–1.19)

0.6718

Age group (≥85 vs < 85)

0.96 (0.82–1.13)

0.6388

0.83 (0.70–0.99)

0.0328

Educational level (low vs medium/high/missing)

0.94 (0.81–1.10)

0.4440

0.95 (0.80–1.13)

0.5506

Frailty (frail/terminally ill vs managing well/vulnerable/missing)

1.83 (1.57–2.13)

<.0001

1.45 (1.22–1.71)

<.0001

BMI (≥30 vs < 30)

1.34 (1.16–1.54)

<.0001

1.18 (1.02–1.38)

0.0303

Smoker (smoker vs non-smoker/ex-smoker/missing)

0.83 (0.59–1.16)

0.2763

0.85 (0.60–1.21)

0.3579

Research centre (Austria vs Germany 1)

0.69 (0.52–0.93)

0.0139

0.97 (0.72–1.31)

0.8519

Research centre (Italy vs Germany 1)

0.58 (0.44–0.75)

<.0001

0.90 (0.67–1.21)

0.4950

Research centre (UK vs Germany 1)

0.92 (0.70–1.22)

0.5561

1.71 (1.27–2.30)

0.0004

Research centre (Germany 2 vs Germany1)

0.71 (0.54–0.94)

0.0150

0.74 (0.56–0.97)

0.0303

Number of diagnoses (> 8 vs ≤8)

2.70 (2.32–3.14)

<.0001

2.64 (2.24–3.11)

<.0001

Physical health composite score (≤36.635 vs > 36.636)

1.83 (1.58–2.11)

<.0001

1.47 (1.26–1.72)

<.0001

Mental health composite score (≤48.7 vs > 48.8)

1.53 (1.33–1.76)

<.0001

1.36 (1.17–1.59)

<.0001